NOTE: THIS IS PART OF THE Magazine Style Newspaper!. One Full Page With TWO Photographs and Reverse of "LESLIE'S WEEKLY", (Formerly "FRANK LESLIE'S ILLUSTRATED NEWSPAPER"), New York, New York, the 7/28/1900 Issue. This was during the time of the Boxer Rebellion and the Eight Nation Alliance efforts to suppress that revolt;
ITEM 1.) This Sheet includes: “A Crowd in the Streets of Shanghai Laughing Over a Grewsome Execution" AND "A Wholesale Execution In China - Beheading a Gang of Pirates"; Reverse contains articles;
The upper photographic Illustration shows "A Crowd in the Streets of Shanghai Laughing Over a Grewsome Execution" with no obvious indication as to whether or not this is an "official" or "informal" execution;
The Lower photo has "A Wholesale Execution In China - Beheading a Gang of Pirates" which appears to be mislabeled; It appears that the execution is over and a crowd of Westerners (in British Dress?) have gathered to review the scene; in the far background are significant mountains, but the near background shows various ships on a river, lake or harbor; The severed heads are clearly visible and most appear to have been posed for the photographer; the caption also has "Reproduced from "Leslie's Weekly" of October 25th, 1894. Copyrighted in 1894 by the Arkell Publishing Company." which indicates that the photo was "recycled" from an earlier period of chaos in China; Below is "THE THIRST OF THE CHINAMAN FOR HUMAN BLOOD. Ghastly Scenes at the Execution of Offenders on the streets and in other public places.";
Above Masthead is "Midsummer Number - A Charming Double-Page Drawing of a Summer Scene by Howard Chandler Christy"; This is Page 61 (the Front Cover) of the Saturday July 28, 1900 issue of Leslie's; Vol. XCI, No. 2342; Published by the JUDGE Company; "The Oldest Illustrated Weekly in the United States";
Reverse is devoted to publisher's masthead and various articles including: "New York's Peril from Fire Along the Water-front." (contributed article by Hugh Bonner, retired Chief of the New York City Fire Department); Perplexities in China (a general discussion of the fact that Westerners really do not know or understand China and that the then current situation of revolution and general chaos was to be feared); An Outrageous Copyright Law; The Plain Truth (shorts on Paris Exposition, Railroad employee safety, Mayor Van Wyck of New York); This is Page 62;
It appears that issues averaged 20 pages, so this sheet probably represents one-tenth of the issue;
This sheet was removed from the magazine/newspaper and is complete; Page may have been trimed; some edge tears, otherwise the illustration is in good condition for its age and suitable for framing; will be shipped flat;
Aggregate Print Image Size: Approximately 6" x 9"; page Approximately 10" x 16";
HISTORICAL NOTE: "Frank Leslie's Weekly, later often known in short as Leslie's Weekly was an American illustrated literary & news magazine founded in 1852 & continuing publication well into the 20th century. As implied by its name, it was published weekly, on Tuesdays. Its first editor was John Y. Foster. In 1897 its circulation was estimated at 65,000, although there were only 30 copies of the first edition printed. It was one of several magazines started by publisher & illustrator Frank Leslie & continued after his death in 1880 by his widow, the women's suffrage campaigner Miriam Florence Leslie. The name, by then a well-established trademark, remained also after 1902, when it no longer had a connection with the Leslie family. It continued until 1922. Throughout its decades of existence, the weekly provided illustrations & reports - 1st with woodcuts & Daguerreotypes, later with more advanced forms of photography - of wars from John Brown's raid at Harpers Ferry & the Civil War until the Spanish-American War & the First World War. It often took a strongly patriotic stance & frequently featured cover pictures of soldiers & heroic battle stories. It also gave extensive coverage to less martial events such as the Klondike gold rush of 1897, covered by San Francisco journalist John Bonner. Among the writers publishing their stories in the weekly were H. Irving Hancock, Helen R. Martin, & Ellis Parker Butler. Some of the magazine's covers in its later period were drawn by Norman Rockwell. Surviving copies of the magazine at present fetch handsome prices as collectors' items & are considered to give a vivid picture of American life during the decades of its publication.";
HISTORICAL NOTE: "The Boxer Rebellion, more properly called the Boxer Uprising, or the Righteous Harmony Society Movement, was a violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian movement by the "Righteous Fists of Harmony,†or Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists in China (known as "Boxers" in English), between 1898 & 1901. In response to imperialist expansion, growth of cosmopolitan influences, & missionary evangelism, & against the backdrop of state fiscal crisis & natural disasters, local organizations began to emerge in Shandong in 1898. At first, they were relentlessly suppressed by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty of China. Later, the Qing Dynasty tried to expel western influence from China. Under the slogan "Support the Qing, destroy the foreign", Boxers across North China attacked mission compounds. They killed missionaries & Chinese Christians. In June 1900, Boxer fighters, lightly armed or unarmed, gathered in Beijing to besiege the foreign embassies. On June 21, the conservative faction of the Imperial Court induced the Empress Dowager, who ruled in the emperor’s name, to declare war on the foreign powers that had diplomatic representation in Beijing. Diplomats, foreign civilians, soldiers & some Chinese Christians retreated to the Legation Quarter where they held out for fifty-five days until the Eight-Nation Alliance brought 20,000 troops to their rescue. The Boxer Protocol of September 7, 1901 ended the uprising & provided for severe punishments, including an indemnity of 67 million pounds. The Qing Dynasty was greatly weakened, & was eventually overthrown by the 1911 revolution, which led to the establishment of the Chinese Republic. The Society of Righteous & Harmonious Fists, known by foreigners as the Boxers, was a secret society founded in Shandong, located in the North province of China. Westerners came to call well-trained, athletic young men "Boxers" due to the martial arts & calisthenics they practiced. Despite the obvious differences between Wushu & Western pugilistic boxing, the training for unarmed combat took on the same name to the Europeans. The Boxers believed that they could, through training, diet, martial arts, & prayer, perform extraordinary feats, such as flight & could become immune to swords & bullets. Further, they popularly claimed that millions of "spirit soldiers," would descend from the heavens & assist them in purifying China from foreign influences. Boxers recruited local farmers & other workers made desperate by disastrous floods & focused blame on both Christian missionaries & Chinese Christians. Some Chinese Christians were recent converts & some had been born into the faith, but missionaries secured special protection for them using the shelter of Extraterritoriality. Aggression toward missionaries & Christians gained the attention of foreign (mainly European) governments. After the Hundred Days Reform failed, the conservative Empress Dowager Cixi seized power & put the reformist Guangxu Emperor into house arrest. Western countries paid sympathy to the emperor [?], & opposed her plan to substitute the Guangxu emperor [?]. Empress Dowager Cixi decided to use Boxers to expel Western influences out of China; meanwhile, the Boxers would be weakened by Western forces. Then the Boxer slogan became “support the Qing, destroy the Foreign." One of the 1st signs of unrest appeared in a small village in Shandong province, where there had been a long dispute over the property rights of a temple between locals & the Roman Catholic authorities. The Catholics claimed that the temple was originally a church abandoned after the Kangxi Emperor banned Christianity in China 200 years ago. The local court ruled in favor of the church, & angered villagers who claimed the temple for rituals. After the local authorities turned over the temple to the Catholics, the villagers (led by the Boxers) attacked the church building. The exemption of missionaries from many laws further alienated local Chinese. In 1899, with the help of the French Minister in Peking, the missionaries obtained an edict granting official rank to each order in the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Local priests, by means of this official status, were able to support their people in legal disputes or family feuds & go over the heads of local officials. After the German government took over territory in Shandong, many Chinese feared that the missionaries, & by extension all Christians, were part of an imperialist attempt to "carve the melon," that is, to divide China & make it into colonies. The early years of the movement's growth coincided with the Hundred Days Reform (11 June–21 September 1898). They persuaded the Guangxu Emperor to institute reforms which alienated many officials by their sweeping nature & led the Empress Dowager to step in & reverse the reforms. Making matters worse, massive floods in some areas & drought in others created poverty & refugees. Now with a majority of conservatives in the Imperial Court, the Empress Dowager changed her long policy of suppressing Boxers, issuing edicts in defense of the Boxers, which drew heated complaints from foreign diplomats in January 1900. In June 1900, the Boxers, now joined by elements of the Imperial army, attacked foreign compounds in the cities of Tianjin & Beijing. The legations of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, Russia & Japan were all located on the Beijing Legation Quarter close to the Forbidden City in Beijing. The legations were hurriedly linked into a fortified compound that became a refuge for foreign citizens in Beijing. The Spanish & Belgian legations were a few streets away, & their staff were able to arrive safely at the compound. The German legation on the other side of the city was stormed before the staff could escape. When the Envoy for the German Empire, Klemens Freiherr von Ketteler, was murdered on June 20, by a Manchurian(?) man, the foreign powers demanded redress. On June 21, Empress Dowager Cixi declared war against all Western powers, but regional governors, including Li Hongzhang & Zhang Zhidong, quietly refused to cooperate. Shanghai's Chinese elite supported the provincial governors of southeastern China in resisting the Imperial declaration of war. Later many peasants took up their arms & joined the Boxer's cause, but were also defeated. The Taiyuan Massacre was the mass killing of foreign Christian missionaries & of local church members, including children, from July 1900, & was one of the more bloody & infamous parts of the Boxer Rebellion. 48 Catholic missionaries & 18,000 Chinese Catholics were murdered. 222 Chinese Eastern Orthodox Christians were also murdered, along with 182 Protestant missionaries & 500 Chinese Protestants known as the China Martyrs of 1900. The Missionary Herald normally published letters & telegrams sent by priests & their families in Manchu Qing dynasty, in Shanxi province, Taiyuan city. In December 1900, after incrementally more ominous monthly reports, the Missionary Herald broke five-month-old news to its readers: "the entire mission staff in the Province of Shanxi has perished". At the end of June 1900, priests & their families had been lured out of hiding & cast into prison, then executed by the Manchu officials. The Taiyuan missionaries fled into a co-worker's house because Boxers were burning churches & houses, killing Christians & foreigners. Three days later, the Governor sent four deputies with soldiers, "promising to escort them in safety to the coast". Brought instead to a house near the Governor’s residence, they were then "taken to the open space in front of the Governor’s residence, & stripped to the waist, as usual with those beheaded". In 2005, British Professor Henry Hart released a book, Lost in the Gobi Desert, to commemorate his great-grandfather's efforts to save the life of western missionaries & their Chinese followers from the hands of the Boxer rebels. “Boxers blamed “foreign devils†like my great-grandparents for causing northern China's drought and famine, exacerbating economic hardships by building railroads and telegraph lines (because such modern conveniences eliminated jobs), undermining the native textile industry with European imports, infecting and killing Chinese children with Christian prayers and for various other real and imagined infamies.†“The murderous Boxer Rebellion came as a sudden thunderstorm; all foreigners were to be killed not in the sudden merciful death of a bullet but sliced to death by big, old rusty knives and swords.... I had an old Winchester rifle and plenty of ammunition ready for the journey....The Boxer uprising ultimately claimed the lives of more than 32,000 Chinese Christians and several hundred foreign missionaries (historian Nat Brandt called it “the greatest single tragedy in the history of Christian evangelicalismâ€â€ The compound in Beijing remained under siege from Boxer forces from 20 June to 14 August. Under the command of the British minister to China, Claude Maxwell MacDonald, the legation staff & security personnel defended the compound with one old muzzle-loaded cannon; it was nicknamed the "International Gun" because the barrel was British, the carriage was Italian, the shells were Russian, & the crew was American. During the defence of the Legations, a small Japanese force of 1 officer & 24 sailors commanded by Colonel Shiba, distinguished itself in several ways. Of particular note was that it had the almost unique distinction of suffering greater than 100% casualties. This was possible because a great many of the Japanese troops were wounded, entered into the casualty lists, then returned to the line of battle only to be wounded once more & again entered in the casualty lists. Foreign media described the fighting going on in Beijing, as well as the alleged torture & murder of captured foreigners. While it is true that thousands of Chinese Christians were massacred in north China, many horrible stories that appeared in world newspapers were based on the actual murder of men, women, & children within the foreign legation. Nonetheless a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment arose in Europe, the United States & Japan. The poorly-armed Boxer rebels were unable to break into the compound, which was relieved by an international army of the Eight-Nation Alliance in August. On 23 June 1900, the Boxer rebels started setting fire to an area south of the British Legation, using it as a "frightening tactic" to attack the defenders. And Hanlin Yuan, a complex of courtyards & buildings that housed "the quintessence of Chinese scholarship ... the oldest & richest library in the world" (Yongle Dadian) was just nearby. Sir Claude MacDonald, the commander-in-chief, had become worried that the Boxer rebels might try to burn the Hanlin Yuan, the "buildings at some point being only an arm's length from the British building walls." On 24 June 1900, when the winds shifted, the unanticipated happened: Hanlin Yuan's group of building had caught fire, & the fire was beginning to spread further. Eyewitness' accounts: "The old buildings burned like tinder with a roar which drowned the steady rattle of musketry as Tung Fu-shiang's Moslems fired wildly through the smoke from upper windows." "Some of the incendiaries were shot down, but the buildings were an inferno and the old trees standing round them blazed like torches." "An attempt was made to save the famous Yung Lo Ta Tien [now spelled Yongle Dadian], but heaps of volumes had been destroyed, so the attempt was given up." -eyewitness, Lancelot Giles, son of Herbert A. Giles. The Manchu authority blamed the British for setting the fire as a defensive measure, whereas the British pointed to the direction of the wind, & claimed that it was either the Boxer rebels or the ordinary Manchu soldiers who "set fire to the Hanlin, working systematically from one courtyard to the next." Rescued from among the burning buildings were portions of the Yongle Encyclopedia, and other works. Foreign navies started building up their presence along the northern China coast from the end of April 1900. On 31 May, before the sieges had started & upon the request of foreign embassies in Beijing, an International force of 435 navy troops from eight countries were dispatched by train from Takou to the capital (75 French, 75 Russian, 75 British, 60 U.S., 50 German, 40 Italian, 30 Japanese, 30 Austrian); these troops joined the legations & were able to contribute to their defense. The rebellion was ultimately quashed by the Eight-Nation Alliance of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom & the United States. As the situation worsened, a 2nd International force of 2,000 marines under the command of the British Vice-Admiral Edward Seymour, the largest contingent being British, was dispatched from Takou to Beijing on 10 June. The troops were transported by train from Takou to Tianjin with the agreement of the Chinese government, but the railway between Tianjin & Beijing had been severed. Seymour however resolved to move forward & repair the rail or such as the train, or progress on foot as necessary, keeping in mind that the distance between Tianjin & Beijing was only 120 kilometers. After Tianjin however, the convoy was surrounded, the railway behind & in front of them was destroyed, & they were attacked from all parts by Chinese irregulars & even Chinese governmental troops. News arrived on 18 June regarding attacks on foreign legations. Seymour decided to continue advancing, this time along the Pei-Ho river, towards Tong-Tcheou, 25 kilometers from Beijing. By the 19th, they had to abandon their efforts due to progressively stiffening resistance, & started to retreat southward along the river with over two hundred wounded. Commandeering four civilian Chinese junks along the river, they loaded all their wounded & remaining supplies onto them & pulled them along with ropes from the riverbanks. By this point, they were very low on food, ammunition & medical supplies. Luckily, they then happened upon The Great Hsi-Ku Arsenal, a hidden Qing munitions cache that the Western Powers had no knowledge of until then. They immediately captured & occupied it, discovering not only German Krupp-made field guns, but rifles with millions of rounds in ammunition, along with millions of pounds of rice & ample medical supplies. There they dug in & awaited rescue. A Chinese servant was able to infiltrate through the Boxer & Qing lines, informing the Western Powers of their predicament. Surrounded & attacked nearly around the clock by Qing troops & Boxers, they were at the point of being overrun. On 25 June, however, a regiment composed of 1800 men, (900 Russian troops from Port-Arthur, 500 British seamen, with an ad hoc mix of other assorted western troops) finally arrived. Spiking the mounted field guns & setting fire to any munitions that they could not take (an estimate £3 million worth), they departed the Hsi-Ku Arsenal in the early morning of 26 June, with the loss of 62 killed and 228 wounded. With a difficult military situation in Tianjin, & a total breakdown of communications between Tianjin & Beijing, the allied nations took steps to reinforce their military presence significantly. On 17 June, they took the Taku Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, & from there brought increasing numbers of troops on shore. The international force, with British Lieutenant-General Alfred Gaselee acting as the commanding officer, called the Eight-Nation Alliance, eventually numbered 55,000, with the main contingent being composed of Japanese soldiers: Japanese (20,840), Russian (13,150), British (12,020), French (3,520), U.S.(3,420), German (900), Italian (80), Austro-Hungarian (75), & anti-Boxer Chinese troops. The international force finally captured Tianjin on 14 July under the command of the Japanese colonel Kuriya, after one day of fighting. Notable exploits during the campaign were the seizure of the Taku Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, & the boarding and capture of four Chinese destroyers by Roger Keyes. The march from Tianjin to Beijing of about 120 km consisted of about 20,000 allied troops. On 4 August there were approximately 70,000 Imperial troops with anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 Boxers along the way. They only encountered minor resistance & the battle was engaged in Yangcun, about 30 km outside Tianjin, where the 14th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. & British troops led the assault. However, the weather was a major obstacle, extremely humid with temperatures sometimes reaching 110 °F (43 °C). The International force reached & occupied Beijing on 14 August. The US was able to play a secondary, but significant role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion largely due to the presence of U.S. ships & troops deployed in the Philippines since the U.S. conquest of the Spanish American & Philippine-American War. In the US military, the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion was known as the China Relief Expedition. The siege was finally ended when Indian troops of the international expeditionary force arrived under the command of German general Alfred Graf von Waldersee. The main German force arrived too late to take part in the fighting, but undertook several punitive expeditions against the Boxers. Troops from most nations engaged in plunder, looting & rape. German troops in particular were criticized for their enthusiasm in carrying out Kaiser Wilhelm II’s words. On 27 July 1900, when Wilhelm II spoke during departure ceremonies for the German contingent to the relief force in China, an impromptu, but intemperate reference to the Hun invaders of continental Europe would later be resurrected by British propaganda to mock Germany during World War I & World War II. "Just as the Huns a thousand years ago, under the leadership of Attila, gained a reputation by virtue of which they still live in historical tradition, so may the name Germany become known in such a manner in China, that no Chinese will ever again dare to look askance at a German." In order to provide restitution to missionaries & Christian families whose property had been destroyed, American troops were guided through villages by the missionary William Ament. Boxers, or at least those identified as Boxers, were punished, even executed, & their property confiscated. When Mark Twain read of this expedition, he wrote a series of scathing attacks on the "Reverend bandits of the American Board." On 7 September 1901, the Qing court was compelled to sign the "Boxer Protocol" also known as Peace Agreement between the Eight-Nation Alliance & China. The protocol ordered the execution of ten high-ranking officials linked to the outbreak, & other officials who were found guilty for the slaughter of Westerners in China. China was fined war reparations of 450,000,000 tael of fine silver (around 67.5 million pounds, or approximately US$6.7 billion today.) for the loss that it caused. The reparation would be paid within 39 years, & would be 982,238,150 taels (US$14.6 billion today) with interests (4% per year) included. To help meet the payment, it was agreed to increase the existing tariff from an actual 3.18% to 5%, & to tax hitherto duty-free merchandise. The sum of reparation was estimated by the Chinese population (roughly 450 million in 1900), to let each Chinese pay one tael. Chinese custom income & salt tax were enlisted as guarantee of the reparation. Russia got 30% of the reparation, Germany 20%, France 15.75%, Britain 11.25%, Japan 7.7% & the US share was 7%. China paid 668,661,220 taels of silver from 1901 to 1939. The British signatory of the Protocol was Sir Ernest Satow. An excess of the reparations paid to the US was diverted to pay for the education of Chinese students in U.S. universities under the Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholarship Program. To prepare the students chosen for this program an institute was established to teach the English language & to serve as a preparatory school for the course of study chosen. When the 1st of these students returned to China they undertook the teaching of subsequent students, from this institute was born Tsinghua University. Some of the reparation due to Britain was later earmarked for a similar program. The China or Inland Mission lost more members than any other missionary agency: 58 adults & 21 children were killed. However, in 1901, when the allied nations were demanding compensation from the Chinese government, Hudson Taylor refused to accept payment for loss of property or life in order to demonstrate the meekness of Christ to the Chinese. The western countries stopped short of finally colonizing China. From the Boxer rebellions, the westerners learned that the best way to govern China was through the Chinese dynasty, instead of direct dealing with the Chinese people (as a saying “The people are afraid of officials, the officials are afraid of foreigners, & the foreigners are afraid of the people"). Dowager Cixi used Boxers to fight westerners largely because western countries sympathized with the Guangxu Emperor, who had been house-arrested after an aborted reformation. However, eventually, as an unwritten agreement, Dowager Cixi was allowed to stay in power, since comparatively, Cixi could use her influence to suppress the Chinese anti-western sentiment better than the weak & ineffectual Guangxu Emperor. The Guangxu Emperor spent the rest of his life in house-arrest. In October 1900, Russia was busy occupying much of the northeastern province of Manchuria, a move which threatened Anglo-American hopes of maintaining what remained of China's territorial integrity & an openness to commerce under the Open Door Policy. This behavior led ultimately to the Russo-Japanese War, where Russia was defeated at the hands of an increasingly confident Japan. Among the Imperial powers, Japan gained prestige due to its military aid in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion & was now seen as a power. Its clash with Russia over Liaodong & other provinces in eastern Manchuria, long considered by the Japanese as part of their sphere of influence, led to the Russo-Japanese War when two years of negotiations broke down in February 1904. Germany earned itself the derogatory moniker "Hun" at the beginning of World War I when intrepid propagandists resurrected Wilhelm II’s 1900 speech. The Russian Lease of the Liaodong (1898) was confirmed. The effect on China was a weakening of the dynasty as well as a weakened national defense. The structure was temporarily sustained by the Europeans. Besides the compensation, Empress Dowager Cixi reluctantly started some reformations despite her previous view. The Imperial examination system for government service was eliminated; as a result, the classical system of education was replaced with a Westernized system that led to a university degree. After the death of Empress Dowager Cixi & the Guangxu Emperor (on the same day, mysteriously) in 1908, the Regent (the Guangxu Emperor's brother) launched reformation. However, these efforts seemed to be too late. The revolutionaries within Han Chinese could not wait. The imperial government's humiliating failure to defend China against the foreign powers contributed to the growth of nationalist resentment against the "foreigner" Qing dynasty (who were descendants of the Manchu conquerors of China). By the chance that the Qing Dynasty became weakened by the war, the 1911 revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, ended the last dynasty in Chinese history. To this day, the Chinese still use the Boxer movement as a history lesson for the Rise of China. Views differ as to whether the Boxers are better seen as anti-imperialist or as futile opponents of inevitable change. In the People's Republic of China, orthodox textbooks analyze the Boxer movement as an anti-imperialist patriotic peasant movement whose failure was due to the lack of leadership from the modern working class. In recent decades, however, large scale projects of village interviews & explorations of archival sources have led historians to take a more nuanced view. Some Western scholars, such as Joseph Esherick, have seen the movement as anti-imperialist, while others view this interpretation as anachronistic in that the Chinese nation had not been formed & the Boxers were more concerned with regional issues. Esherick comments that "confusion about the Boxer Uprising is not simply a matter of popular misconceptions," for "there is no major incident in China's modern history on which the range of professional interpretation is so great.". Paul Cohen's recent history includes a survey of "the Boxers as myth," showing how their memory was used in changing ways in twentieth century China from the New Culture Movement to the Cultural Revolution. In 2006 Yuan Weishi, a professor of philosophy at Zhongshan University in Guangzhou, China published an essay titled Modernisation & History Textbooks, criticizing the official theme of government issued middle schools history textbooks, claiming that they contain numbers of non-neutral historical interpretations. Yuan wrote that these "criminal actions brought unspeakable suffering to the nation & its people! These are all facts that everybody knows, and it is a national shame that the Chinese people cannot forget." For many years, history text books had been lacking in neutrality in presenting the Boxer Rebellion as a "magnificent feat of patriotism", & not presenting the view that the majority of the Boxer rebels were both violent and xenophobic. Professor Yuan stated that Manchu rulers did not comply with signed international treaties, & that it is wrong to blame "the Opium Wars of the mid-1800s entirely on foreign nations". On the other hand, such views are criticized & considered to be unfair, unneutral & logically absurd by some people & Yuan Weishi is even called Hanjian (national betrayer) by some Chinese people. The philosopher Tang Junyi viewed the Boxer Uprising as a religious war between the Chinese & Christianity. In fact, facing what they viewed as an aggressive religious invasion by Christianity, Chinese Righteous Harmony Society had the slogan "Defend Chinese Religion & Get Rid of Foreign Religion (of Christianity)." Some scholars consider it to be a war against the invasion of China by the foreign religion of Christianity.";
Part of the Collection of Henry J. Hauschild, Jr., who billed himself as a “Physiognomist – Bibliopolist – Cognoscente di Eccellentissimoâ€, and was the very proud owner of the world famous "Nose Gallery†at “The Oldest House†in Victoria, Texas; It is believed that earlier this item was part of the magazine and newspaper collection of Edwin Hunt Frost of Yonkers, New York;
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